Violence & The Roots of Aggression

Violence, Aggression and Evolutionary Psychology:
A Cross Discipline Analysis
By
Deborah Phelan


Introduction
This paper seeks to analyze the roots of aggression and violence through an evaluation of diverse theories, ranging from the biochemistry of violence, genetics, philosophy, and the emerging field of evolutionary psychology. The work included is a sampling of research conducted in this cross-discipline analysis.


The Zaire River Valley

Let’s travel back to Africa some 2.5 million years. A devastating drought has driven the gorilla from its customary home on the southern banks of the Zaire River. The gorillas move north of the river, leaving their former home to a group of chimpanzees who, now with no competition, learn to sustain themselves by adapting to the gorilla diet of fibrous foods. When the drought ends, the gorillas remain in their new home, sharing this section of the valley with resident chimpanzees and leaving the southern forest free for the other chimpanzees to evolve. Enter the bonobo.
According to Wringham & Peterson (Demonic Males) “Bonobos can afford to live in larger, more stable parties than chimpanzees because they live in a world without gorillas. They have evolved to take advantage of the more digestible parts of the gorilla diet -- not the tough low-quality stems that occur in patches around swamps, but the juicy, protein-rich growth buds and stem bases of young herbs. … Bonobos have evolved in a forest that is friendlier in its food supply and that allows them to be kindlier too.”
Consider these findings. Bonobos form groups and travel together in ‘family-like’ parties. They develop more sophisticated methods of communication. Bonds develop between females, violence between males declines as females evolve to masque their fertile periods. (In fact, bonobos exhibit no scent to differentiate when they are fertile.) Bonds between females and their sons become the strongest bonds in the group. Females band together to protect each other’s offspring. Because the males cannot determine if the offspring are theirs, infanticide disappears.
Not only do bonobos interact well within their group, they also form friendly relationships with other groups of bonobos. There is no raiding of each other’s territories, no border patrols, no killing. Unlike their relatives, the chimpanzee, the bonobo do not kill monkeys. The stability of the group enables the female to dominate. And while, like the chimpanzee, the female migrates to another group upon maturity, it is through being accepted by an elder female that she establishes herself as part of her new family. Sex between bonobos is between and among sexes. Sex, in a sense, replaces aggression.
It is at this period in history, in the Zaire River Valley, as bonobos first appear in the woodlands, that the first humans evolve in the savannah. There are no foods in the savannah to enable the woodland apes (human ancestors) to hunt as a group. They, like the chimpanzee, are constantly splitting up to find meats, honey, nuts and fruit. Females, significantly smaller and overtly exhibiting signs of fertile periods, are not able to effectively restrain males, resulting in imbalances of power and aggression. Once again, the male dominates. The strongest male emerges as the leader of the group, controlling the most significant aspects of life, from the dispensation of food to the permission to procreate. Most important to the male chimp is that his offspring survive
Flash forward to late twentieth century Africa where researchers have discovered that man is not the only animal that kills its own kind. Tracking a group of chimpanzees they observe males banding together to attack other solitary chimps who have ventured near or into their territory. And, perhaps more shockingly, the animals being attacked are recognized as having once been included in the same group of chimpanzees being studied.
Geneticists, scientists and anthropologists observe the following characteristics as being inherent in the chimpanzee and, by extraction, the human behavior pool:
•Risk taking is an essentially male behavior, influenced by culture, individuality, and technology
• Risk adverse males may live longer but do not have more children
•Female genes assure she will act in a way to select the best genes for her offspring: she will choose the winner.
Is it possible, then, that along with other traits and genetic pathways we share with chimpanzees, our proclivity as a species for violence against each other is genetically based? In our need for power and control over our ‘boundaries’, our possessions, our rights, and those things which form the core elements of our sustenance, are we re-enacting the same behavior exhibited some 2.5 million years ago in the African savannah? As the world grows more populated and its natural resources more scarce, are we engaging in preemptive strikes to ensure the survival of our ‘group’ by gaining access to fossil fuel, water, arable land?’ Is it possible that in the societies where the survival of young males is most threatened, females are retaliating with the only weapon available to them? In desperation, igniting their bodies with bombs? Taking with them to their death non-combatants, all of whom collectively are calculated as acceptable losses? Is this maternal instinct pushed to a perceived insanity?



Chimps Bonobos
Patrol Borders
Male dominant Female dominant
Little group cohesion Strong group cohesion
Sex for procreation, leads to aggression Sex for pleasure ; inhibits aggression, sex among females
Attack other chimps Coexist with group members
Raid other territories Get along with other bonobo groups
Aggression over food

Pinker and Hobbes



"The first maketh men invade for Gain; the second, for Safety; and the third, Reputation. The first use Violence to make themselves Masters of other men's persons, wives, children, and cattle; the second, to defend them; the third, for trifles, as a word, a smile, a different opinion, and any other sign of undervalue, either direct in their Persons, or by reflexion in their Kindred, their Friends, their Nation, their Profession, or their Name."
Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan

In his most recent book, The Blank Slate ,Stephen Pinker writes extensively on violence, relying heavily on the theories of Hobbes in framing his argument. Pinker suggests that human aggression and war are most readily understood by analysis of genetic ‘traits’ that have evolved because they continue to serve a purpose in human’s inherent need to assure the survival of its species. Drawing from Leviathan, he suggests that competition, distrust, and honor are the three catalysts for war and acts of aggression.
Competition: According to Pinker, humans are akin to survival machines, wired to do whatever ensures their survival and reproduction. Accordingly, natural selection has favored those genes that control the survival machine in a manner that most effectively uses the environment in which the machine exists. Any obstacle to survival has to be eliminated. An obstacle can be an individual, a group, or a tribe that is controlling desired land or food sources. Pinker concludes that raw self interest is a major motive for war. Both the radical Islamists and the West are competing in a global battle to determine the type of governments that will rule in key strategic areas of the world. For Islam, there is no situation which allows them to accept a western culture and politic in an Arabic country. For the US, the existence of Islamic republics is in direct opposition to their perception of the form of political structure suitable to control both Arabic and non-Arabic nation states. (Interestingly, the west continues to rely for its survival on fossil fuels predominantly buried beneath the lands that constitute the cradle of civilization. In its competition to control the world, the West is attempting to reshape cultures that have long survived without converting ancient substance into power sources that destroy the very ecosystems from which they sprung.)
Distrust: As Group A grows, forming new alliances with neighbors or tribes, Group B's fear of a potential attack grows, resulting in their building up a network of supporters and resources
YOU strike first to protect self and group.
This situation is referred to as the Hobbesian trap, a situation characterized by a) concern with security; b) alliances with other groups against a perceived enemy; and c) arms races. Some examples of Hobbesian traps are street gangs, the Mafia, World War I, the Six Day War, and the Cold War.
Pinker details how the ‘bluff” and self deception are symptomatic in situations where Group B is vastly overpowered by Group A’s resources and other strengths. These characteristics are evident in the behavior of Sadaam Hussein whose strategy with UN inspectors and inability (or unwillingness) to account for large amounts of weapons constituted a bluff. His assertions both after the Iran-Iraq war and the Gulf War that Iraq had emerged the winner exemplify the self deception characteristic of a leader who knows he is powerless in the face of a insurmuintably more powerful opponent. In point of fact, the US ‘’War on Terrorism can also fit into this category as the US struggles to assemble a coalition to rival the perceived existence of terrorist cells around the world. The US concern with the security of its ‘homeland’ has led to the expansion of its weapons program and sending groups to outposts throughout the world. From the Islamic perspective, it is necessary to keep the US paranoid about the depth and breadth of the terrorist network. The secrecy and necessitated seclusion of Islamic leaders makes it nearly impossible for the US to determine if the speeches we hear from these leaders are actually bravado, coupled with a quasi-narcissistic self deception. For Al Qaeda, this means striking furtively yet always with the incipient threat of WMD …. Do they have them or don’t they? If they do, where will they use them. The US, on the other hand, strikes at will, armed with billions of dollars worth of the latest technologically enhanced weaponry and a highly trained military.
HONOR: In this situation, Group A seeks revenge from Group B for a perceived or real violation. Examples include blood feuds, border clashes, Mafia hits, the Middle East, the US war on terrorism, the terrorist attacks against the US and its allies, the Chechynian rebels, suicide bombers in Russian, the Middle East, and Iraq, etc. As President Bush but it most succinctly, “If you’re not with us, you’re against us.” As bin Laden put it -- If you are a Muslim, you must be prepared to sacrifice your life for jihad.

Outside the Group

Natural selection, according to Matt Ridley, has equipped us with desires and dispositions that worked well in ancestral environments. In today’s world, he says, our cultural milieu taps into these adaptations “to produce behaviors that have absolutely nothing to do with what they were originally evolved for.
“Genes themselves are implacable little determinists, churning out utterly predictable messages,” according to Ridley. “But because of the way their promoters switch on and off in response to external instruction, genes are very far from being fixed in their actions. Instead, they are devices for extracting information from the environment. “
Theories espoused by evolutionary psychologists, such as Ridley, suggest that expressed human behavior is not necessarily related to genes but rather to underlying psychological mechanisms that have evolved through natural selection.
Harvard scientists Tooby and Cosmides, recognized as the founders of evolutionary psychology, posited in 1995 that what actually evolves is the entire developmental program, which includes the program for creating an eye or the heart or the brain’s language organ. Each program, they suggest, “requires the successful integration of hundreds, perhaps thousands, of genes (many of them used in other systems as well) and the presence of expected environmental cues.”
It is this psychological mechanism (akin to Pinker’s survival machine) that ‘predisposes’ most humans to react to certain circumstances with warlike tendencies.
Culture, therefore, is viewed as a “manipulation of innate desires,” (Ridley) perhaps the most powerful of which is the instinctive cooperation among kin, the theory of relatedness. Since ancestral times, organisms existing outside the circle of kin (as defined by the group) have been viewed as being no more alive than a rock or a tree stump. Aggression or violence against outsiders or invaders just might be an instinctive behavior.
And while the ‘group’ or ‘us’ has expanded over time through advances in technology, travel, art and the evolution and expansion of culture, severe stress or threat (whether perceived or real) can ‘switch off’ relatedness, once again dehumanizing those outside the group.
The Mind of the Suicide Bomber

In his article “Suicide Bombers Made, Not Born” (Science magazine,) investigative journalist Scott Atran suggests that suicide terrorism emerges “when an ideologically devoted people find they cannot possibly win in a fair fight; they know they are in such a weak position they have to use extreme methods.”
When suicide bombing first emerged as a military tactic in the 1980s, the bombers were typically ‘blackmailed’ by terrorists with threats of extortion, death to family members, or murder. There are several stories about early bombers desperately trying to talk others into taking their place en route to a target and even jumping out of the car to save their own lives just before reaching the destination.
But, says Atran, contrary to popularly held theory at the onset of the current wave of suicide bombings (particularly those in the Middle East and the attacks of 9/11), today’s typical suicide bomber possesses the following characteristics:
• Middle or higher- middle class background
• educated
* not crazy
* smart, quiet patient, willing to sacrifice
* civil liberties have been taken away or threatened

Interestingly enough, the methods used to ‘create’ a suicide bomber reveal undeniable parallels to the theory of relatedness or the idea that the concept of kinship has evolved as an inherent component of our genetic coding.
The first step in the process involves creating a fictive family. A ‘cell’ is best defined as a small group of intimately involved ‘brothers and sisters” molded to create kinship. Members of the cell will do anything for each other. The depth of this bond is similar to that existing between a mother and a child, between siblings or other close members of the extended nuclear family. This ‘cell” or group is isolated (at times for up to 18 months) from the general population and is subjected to intense propaganda. The effectiveness of this strategy is equally discernable in training conducted by terrorist organizations and in the tactics used by the US military to create cohesion among battalions.
The brainwashing aims to create group cohesion and consciousness that dehumanizes the ‘other.’
Modern history abounds with examples of combat which exemplify the philosophy of ‘totalism,” the concept that one side is completely bad while the other (your side) is completely good:
• Genocides Kosovo and Bosnia, Darfur
• Attempted extermination of the Kulak peasant class in Russia
• Actions of the Khmer Rouge in
• Attempted extermination of the Intelligentsia in Communist China
• Hutus vs. the Tutsies in the Congo
• Turk’s genocidal massacre of the Armenians
• Holocaust of European Jews

• Civil War Iraq
• The Israeli/Palestinian conflict
• The War on Terrorism


Totalism is characterized, therefore, by a mindset that characterizes members of the other group as inherently evil, and, by extension, not human. This dehumanization of the opponent is the means by which atrocities of any magnitude can be justified. Dehumanization equally explains US illegal and inhumane treatment of identified ‘enemy combatants’ and the assassination over 3000 Americans on 911.

The Biology of Aggression

Serotonin. The brain’s impulse moderator. Originating in the neocortex, it connects 500,000 cells in every part of the brain. A vital neurotransmitter, serotonin enables an individual to live in harmony with the environment. No small thing.
Among the numerous behaviors under serotonin’s control are mood, appetite, sleep/arousal, pain/aggression, suicidal behavior, and impulsive aggression.
Now consider the following:
• Serotonin levels are 20-30% higher in females.
•Serotonin levels are lowest in males in late adolescence; levels elevate as they mature
• Serotonin levels lower as an adaptation to a threatening environment. Individuals can be born with a genetic susceptibility to low serotonin but early life experiences determine how the gene will be expressed.
• Serotonin levels lower in abused children, individuals under the influence of drugs or alcohol, depressed individuals, and individuals living in a highly stressful environment
• Serotonin levels also impacted by damage to outer brain, disturbed thinking, or bad learning experiences.

A connection has been found between low serotonin levels and violent suicides: High levels of noradrenaline and low levels of serotonin result in impulsive aggression, but low noradrenaline and low serotonin cause aggression to be aimed inward.

While neurotransmitters, including acetylcholine, dopamine, and gamma aminobutyric acid,have been studied for their impact on impulsive aggression, data on norepinephrine and serotonin conclude that these two chemicals act reciprocally with regard to impulsive aggression. Serotonin inhibits, norepinephrine facilitates. The association between low levels of serotonin, also known as the "low serotonin syndrome," and impulsive aggression, has been substantiated by scientific research.
Furthermore, scientists have postulated that extraordinarily stressful or violent environmental events (including the collapse of the family, persistent poverty, and chronic drug abuse) as well as sensory deprivation can cause molecular changes to the brain resulting in impulsive aggression. These extreme situations can actually change the architecture of the brain.
Research suggests leaders with high serotonin levels lead by diplomacy, leaders with low serotonin levels lead by force
Biochemical burnout from long -term exposure to stressful events results in antisocial aggressive disorders, emotionlessness, and lack of remorse, resulting in antisocial behaviors. This is characterized by a dip in noradrenaline.
Noradrenalilne deficiency is characteristic of an individual (and, by extrapolation, a ‘cell’ or group, even an entire culture) no longer able to perceive the abuser, the dictator, the oppressor, occupier or the violator as possessing any human qualities. This condition can as much explain the racial profiling characterizing the US opinon after 9/ll (a citizenry’s silence over the illegal imprisonment of thousands of non-Western individuals as ‘enemy combatants, subsequent torture and stripping of legal recourse) as it can the emergence of the suicide bomber exploding a café in as a powerful military force.


***
Ripped from the Headlines:

Excerpts from an interview with EYAD EL SARRAJ, a psychiatrist,and the founder and director of the Gaza Community Mental Health Programme (GCMHP) in Gaza, whose clinics have treated, without payment, one in ten residents in the Strip. He is also secretary-general of the Independent Palestinian Commission for Citizens' Rights and the recipient of the Physicians for Human Rights Award in 1997 and the Martin Ennals Award for Human Rights in 1998.
Dignity, Despair and the Need for Hope

Sarraj: “Let me tell you first that the people who are committing the suicide bombings in this intifada are the children of the first intifada--people who witnessed so much trauma as children. So as they grew up, their own identity merged with the national identity of humiliation and defeat, and they avenge that defeat at both the personal and national levels.”

“The hopelessness that comes from a situation that keeps getting worse, a despair where living becomes no different from dying. Desperation is a very powerful force--it's not only negative. It propels people to actions or solutions that previously would have been unthinkable. What is unthinkable today becomes accepted tomorrow. Whoever would have imagined suicide bombings in Palestine ten years ago? There is no precedent in our society. This is what I mean when I say that if this continues, there will be new methods of escalation of the violence too horrific even to imagine today.”
“Listen. In the last uprising, children used to play a game called "intifada." It was a cowboys-and-indians-type game--more specifically, Israeli soldier versus Palestinian stone thrower, with the kids trading off between the role of the soldiers armed with sticks to represent guns and the Palestinians with kufiyyahs and stones. Many of the children at the time preferred to play the Jew, basically because the Jew with the guns represented power. This game has entirely disappeared. Today, the symbol of power is the martyr. If you ask a child in Gaza today what he wants to be when he grows up, he doesn't say that he wants to be a doctor or a soldier or an engineer. He says he wants to be a martyr.”

“During the first intifada, studies showed that 55 percent of the children had witnessed their fathers being humiliated or beaten by Israeli soldiers. The psychological impact of this is stunning. The father, normally the authority figure, comes to be seen as somebody who is helpless, who can't even protect himself--let alone his children. So children became more militant, more violent. People are the products of their environment. Children who have seen so much inhumanity--basically the Israeli occupation policies--inevitably come out with inhuman responses. That's really how to understand the suicide bombings.”

“…they wouldn't turn their bodies into bombs if they had F-16s, Apache helicopters, tanks, or a tiny fraction of the weapons Israel gets from the United States. They say that if you want to attack an Israeli soldier--who is absolutely invulnerable in his bunker or tank--how else can you do it? To their minds, the Israelis have the power of the F-16s, while we have the power to die. So we have reached this deeply paranoid position.”


A Female Touch

Palestine's First Female Suicide Bomber

Despite claims by the pro-Israel lobby of brainwashing by Muslim extremist groups, behind many suicide bombers lie real stories of despair, such as that of Wafa Idris, a secular Palestinian with no links to resistance groups.
Living in the Amari refugee camp - her family was expelled from their home in Ramle by Jewish forces in 1948 and forbidden to return - she witnessed daily scenes of horror as a paramedic with the Red Crescent, during which she was beaten and shot by Israeli troops several times. Her sister-in-law told the BBC how Wafa had been particularly angered by seeing children shot and killed.
“She used to come (home) every day frustrated,” Wafa’s brother Khalil told the Australian Broadcasting Corporation. He added that she would tell him about treating people whose brains were on the ground, whose intestines were hanging out, whose limbs were chopped off, and who would die at checkpoints because Israeli troops would forbid their travel to hospitals.
Her story only made the news because she happened to be the first female Palestinian suicide.

Lipstick Martyrs

‘Lipstick Martyrs’: A New Breed of Palestinian Terrorist
By Sarah Pollak
CBN News Reporter
May 28, 2003
The phenomenon of Palestinian women strapping explosives to their bodies and becoming martyrs is a relatively new one.CBN.com – They are a major roadblock on the "road map." They are young and angry. They are Palestinian suicide bombers, and for the first time, they are women.
Hiba Daraghmeh is the latest to join the growing new list of female suicide bombers. She blew herself up at a mall in Israel, killing three and injuring many others.
She is the fifth young Palestinian woman to launch attacks like their male counterparts.
Most of the female suicide bombers were well-educated and going to university, they all lived in the Palestinian territories, and they are what the Canadian National Post called "lipstick martyrs."

Guide to Making a Female Suicide Bomber

Hiba Daraghmeh - May 19 suicide bombing

Four (Bahira aged six, Osama aged 12, Yazid aged 17 and Rafat aged 28) were killed by Israeli helicopter missile fire in their home village of Tubas on August 31, 2002.
Less than two weeks earlier, on August 18, 19-year-old Nidal Daraghmeh was killed when Israeli troops used him as a human shield, sparking indignation from human rights organisations worldwide and major news agencies in Israel.
He "lost his life because he has the misfortune to live next door to a wanted man's hide-out and because the Israel Defense Forces used a ruthless, unnecessary method called ‘neighbor practice,’ which is nothing more than turning the youth into a ‘human shield’ for soldiers," wrote defence analyst Zeev Schiff in the influential daily Haaretz. "Neighbor practice is a method that is a disgrace to the army." It is also a grave violation of humanitarian and international law.
Palestinian sources said Muannad Daraghmeh, 22, was killed by Israeli troops near Jenin on July 10, 2002.
Moussa Daraghmeh was killed by Israeli soldiers on May 22 last year, on the road between Bethlehem and Jerusalem. Palestinian labourers told reporters that Moussa was with a group of about 20 people who were trying to get around a checkpoint on their way to work.
Amjad Daraghmeh, 22, was killed on September 30, 2000.
Taxi driver Mahmoud Daraghmeh, 40, was seriously injured by four gunshots in the chest on June 13 last year, when Israeli troops, tanks and helicopters besieged and attacked Tubas.

***
Moscow. October 2002. A band of Chechynian terrorists take over a theater, threatening to blow it up if the Russians do not agree to retreat from Chechynia. Scattered throughout the audience are about twenty Chechynian woman, dressed in black, their mid-sections wired with explosives guaranteed to ignite the auditorium at the command of the group’s leader. These women have survived ten years of horrific war; they have lost brothers, husbands, fathers. They are called the “Black Widows.” In certain shots from a movie taken inside the theater during the takeover, many of them can be seen wiping away tears. Is it the loss of their own lives they are fearing, or the hundreds of innocents -- children, mothers, families, performers -- they will take to their death with them?
In interviews with other Black Widows, who continue to operate in and around Chechnya, the story that emerges paints a picture of women who believe they have nothing left to live for. One such woman, recently interviewed on KQED, said she had lost her brother and her husband. Now she was turning over her young son to be raised by her former husband’s family and had volunteered for a suicide mission. It was the only way she could think to avenge the deaths of her loved ones. There was no brainwashing here. No isolation. The culture in which she had existed for so long was so excessively brutal that the thought of a violent death became an obsession.
Interesting,the parallel between the intifada in the Middle East and the situation in Checnya. Palestinian children whose only home has been a refuge camp. Palestinian women who watch as the men in the community are assassinated, belittled, disempowered. Excessive poverty. Few human rights. And now we have Iraq…
The biological model for impulsive violence and violent suicide … A community of people whose brain architecture has been radically altered by long- term exposure to violence, to broken families, to oppression, to isolation.
Evolutionary psychology theory, proposing that under extreme circumstances, individuals or a group can actually ‘switch off’ the mechanism which connects them with others of their species, explains how combatants view the innocents who inadvertently die as a result of suicide bombings, cluster bombs, exposure to white phosphorous are acceptable losses. They are no more human than the fences that hold Palestinians captive, the buses that transport the Israeli citizens, the plastic tenting of a refuge home.
Is it inconceivable for Americans to comprehend such absolute futility? Of being so overwhelmed by military might, so disenfranchised from all that was once meaningful , so powerless, so hopeless. The only recourse left is to avenge the oppressor, with what you have left.
And if this notion that a psychological ‘program’ has evolved which predisposed humans to possessing an inherent sense of kin, perhaps these female suicide bombers are reacting with a maternal instinct. From an evolutionary standpoint, the sacrifice of the one is the only possible option to ensure the continued existence of kin. The body becomes the weapon. The enemy has become depersonalized. The 'innocent victims' are not seen as people because they are members of the outer group. The bomber is powerful in the moment of sacrifice. The refuge camp, the neighborhood , the terrorist cell has become the nuclear family.

Conclusion
Traveling back again to The Zaire River Valley 2.5 million years ago … does it all comes down to water and fruit trees? What would have happened with the chimps north of the Zaire if the drought hadn’t forced the gorilla to migrate, if they hadn’t shared the savannah with the gorilla? And why did humans evolve from chimps in the savannah and not from bonobos in the woodlands? What would the world be like today if we evolved from a female dominated society, characterized by strong social cohesion and the ability to peacefully coexist with other groups? Natural selection, the survival of the fittest. Darwin never intimated that the fittest would be the best.
I like to imagine that the bonobo is somehow evolving among us. A groundswell of humans, who have learned through history and experience that violence is an ineffective reaction to conflict. They are meeting and marching in protest around the world. They are connecting digitally to form a global community. “Make Love, not War,” that famous saying of the Sixties. Perhaps it was a premonition, a glimmer of a new evolving paradigm. Somehow in our collective unconscious, we know the drought is coming. We are staying put on our side of the Zaire.
Bibliography

Books:

Marks,Jonathan, what if means to be 98% chimpanzee, University of California Press 2002

Niehoff, Debra, Phd, The Biology of Violence, Free Press, 1999

Pinker, Steven, The Blank Slate, Penguin, 2002

Ridley, Matt, Nature via Nurture, Harper Collins, 2003

Wilson, E.O., Consilience, Vintage, 1998

Wrangham, Richard and Peterson, Dale, Demonic Males: Apes and the Origins of Human Violence, Harper, 1996


Websites:
For Links to the numerous websites accessed for this paper, visit
FluidArts
http://www.fluidarts.org/bomber.html

Film:
Terror in Moscow, HBO documentary, October 2003.